A Japanese Mythology Research Paper (jen's first research paper ever)
The Way of the Gods

Shintoism begins as a polytheistic, tribal religion. It is a mixture of the beliefs held by various Asian peoples. A group of northeastern Asians, including people from Siberia, Manchuria, and Korea, contribute the practice of Shamanism and the theory of "vertical cosmology"; the belief that gods descended from heaven to the mountain-tops and trees. "Horizontal cosmology", the belief that there is a realm of the dead beyond the sea, is introduced by a group of South Pacific people of Melanesian origin. Lastly, immigrants from southern China add their myths of marriage between a god and his sister, the belief in a fertility deity, and the art of rice cultivation. Therefore, despite the optimism of Japanese people who claim Shinto is an entirely native development, the religion is not completely indigenous to Japan. Instead, it is a miscellany of religious cults that are loosely gathered and defined under one belief system.

The term Shinto is not even coined until the Chinese influence enters Japan. Before this time, the religion is a conglomeration of magic, taboos, and beliefs that change with the landscape. Each clan is "more or less independent with its own traditions of nature- and chieftain-worship" (Noss 303). When the Chinese arrive, their concepts of Confucianism and Buddhism are used to modify the basic Shinto beliefs. However, the most important contribution the Chinese people make is a writing system that allows the doctrines and myths of Shintoism to be documented for the first time. Shinto is written in two Chinese characters from the kanji alphabet. The first part, shin, is interchangeable with the Japanese kami, meaning "gods." The second character, to, also Tao, means "the way of." Literally, the mythological philosophy of Shinto is "the way of the gods," or the way of the kami.

Kami is a difficult concept to explain. First, it refers to all of the gods who inhabit heaven, earth, and the underworld. The most important gods in this hierarchy are the creator gods, all of whom fit into a highly developed creationist theory. Next, kami is all things in nature that can be "considered wondrous, magnificent, or affecting human life" (Hooker 2/3). This aspect of kami is definitely connected with animism and the aspect of shamanism that was imported by the northeastern Asians during the Yayoi period. Both animate (man, fox, raccoon) and inanimate objects (mountain, river, tree) can be kami. Lastly, kami can be the ghosts of ancestors. Honorable deceased members of a personal household, village, or clan can become kami to the living.

The Japanese mythology continues to divide the Kami who are gods of Heaven, Ama-Tsu-Kami, and gods of Earth, Kuni-Tsu-Kami. There are more gods of earth inhabiting the Japanese islands than there are gods in Heaven. However, the gods cross into each other's domains regularly. They are able to do this by crossing the heavenly river, Ama no Gawa, by way of the heavenly bridge, Ama-no-Hashidate. This traffic remains uninterrupted despite the legend told of the day the gods fell asleep and the bridge collapsed, forming the isthmus in Yosa. In addition to the gods on the earth, there are the gods in the earth. For the deceased, including those deemed kami by the living, Shinto presents three terms to describe the underworld: Tomi-Tsu-Kuni (land of darkness), Ne-no-Kuni (land of roots), and Soko-no-Kuni (the deep land). There are only two ways of entering the underworld. The first is a wandering road that begins in Izumo and slopes underground. The other entry, situated on the sea shore, is where a bottomless abyss engulfs all the waters of the sea. The bathing rituals performed on days of great purification end with all sins and impurities being swept away with these waters.

Individual clans often worship a personal god, or kami, over all of the others. These clans, or uji, are simultaneously political, military, and religious. They believe that the clan's original founder, or a principle ancestor of the clan, is directly descended from the divinial kami. In the politics of the clans, whenever one group conquers another group, the defeated clan is expected to worship the victor's kami. This explains how the regional gods of Japan are eventually integrated into beliefs throughout the nation. Also, within the individual clans, people will personally worship their own ancestors, nature objects that they deem worthy, and secondary gods who display characteristics that they are pursuing.

The belief that tribal leaders are related to kami is used by the Japanese people to prove that they are uniquely special. This theory of creation, where all people have family kami, differs from other religions and binds the Japanese together with ties of destiny and a common divine origin. Using the Kojiki, the first commissioned book to formalize Shintoism, oligarchs monopolized the old myths for their own gains. Hence, the imperial house of Japan is said to have descended from Amaterasu, the sun goddess, in an unbroken line. The people's belief in this divine origin remains intact, giving the current Japanese Emperor a unique and sacred heritage that is denied to modern leaders of all other nations.

The Kojiki, meaning the book of ancient things or ancient words, originates with emperor Temmu (AD 672 - 686). He "realized that the ancient families in their contentions were changing the old traditions in order to provide more support for their rights and privileges" (Bruhl 404). As head of the reigning family, he sees these alterations as threats to his precarious hold on power. In response, he sets up a committee to collect the traditional tales before they can become completely corrupted. Also, he orders one of his attending ladies, Hieda-no-Are, to memorize all of the old legends. In 711, Empress Gemmyo orders O no Yasumaru to document the tales Hieda-no-Are has memorized. This book is completed in 712. Then, in 720, the same empress orders a Japanese history to be written. This work, called the Nihongi, contains more than one part. The first part, titled the Jindaiki, or "the record of the age of the gods," gives different versions of the myths and legends existing at that time. The first book, written by O no Yasumaru, and the Jindaiki comprise the two main sources delineating early Shinto mythology.

As told by the Kojiki, the Shinto myth satisfies two elements of the early Japanese culture. First, the myth makes the islands and their inhabitants a special creation of the gods. This communicates the fact that the Japanese are special and supports the sense of national pride that they have. Second, it integrates the Chinese standards and rational that had invaded the islands and their early politics. The Kojiki documents the Shinto mythology in the uniform way the Chinese had introduced from the mainland, weaving the stories into a unified sequence, and making everything Japanese in the process. In addition, we see both of these elements used in the Shinto creationist theory.

This theory begins with three divinities, born of themselves, forming on the high plain of heaven and then hiding. Then, while the earth is still so young that it appears formed of moving oil, two more gods spring forth from something that looks like the shoot of a reed. They also hide. After this, seven generations of gods spring into existence, the last two being Izanagi and Izanami. This final couple are the most important of the early Shinto gods.

Izanagi (he who invites) and Izanami (she who is invited) were "given the order to consolidate and fertilize the moving earth" (Bruhl 407). Standing on the floating bridge of heaven, they stir the sea with a lance given to them by the earlier gods. When the water coagulates, the two gods descend to the islands to create a home and a column. When these are completed, the two deities decide to marry in order to spawn countries. The marriage ceremony involves walking around the aforementioned column. Izanagi walks to the left and Izanami takes the right path. However, when they meet on the other side of the column, Izanami exclaims "What a pleasure to meet such a handsome young man!" (Bruhl 407). Izanagi is displeased, for the first words should have been spoken by him as the husband. Stemming from this mistake is a series of unfortunate births. Finally, the two gods are informed that they have to repeat the ceremony correctly in order to stop having unwanted babies. This myth affirms the social place of both the man and the woman in Japanese society.

Izanagi and Izanami produce a great pantheon of gods to populate Japan. Unfortunately, when Izanami gives birth to the fire god, he burns and kills her during the process. Izanagi, who loved his wife very much, grieves at her death and becomes angry at the new fire god. The strength of his emotions cause him to take up his sword and chop off the child's head. Interestingly, these two deaths are also the birth of more kami. Izanagi's distress at the loss of his wife remains so great that he decides to seek her out in the land of the Yomi, or the underworld. Unfortunately, he does not arrive in time to prevent her from tasting the food of hell. Izanami tells her husband to take his plea for her release to the god of hell. However, Izanagi can not contain his curiosity about his dead wife and he lights comb as a torch to illuminate her. What greets his eyes is a decomposing Izanami, crawling with worms and maggots, who is guarded by eight thunders. Izanami is enraged that her husband should see her so, and she sends soldiers of hell to pursue him as he flees. Poor Izanagi runs from both the pursuers and the sight of his dead wife. When he reaches the entrance to hell, he throws three peaches at the soldiers to send them scurrying back into the land of the Yomi. Then, Izanagi blocks the entrance with a boulder. When Izanami arrives at the blocked entrance, the once loving couple exchange a few unpleasant words, angrily agree to divorce, and go their separate ways.

It is because of Izanagi's time in hell that another basic tenet of Shintoism is established. Feeling soiled by his time in the underworld, Izanagi goes to a river with the intention of purifying himself through cleansing. This purification of body and soul becomes a basic Shinto rite, showing that even the early Japanese people had a strong need for cleanliness. Amaterasu, goddess of the sun, is brought into existence when Izanagi washes his left eye and Tsukiyomi, goddess of the moon, is born when Izanagi washes out his right eye. The last of these siblings is Susano-o, the storm god, who is created when Izanagi washes his nose.

Amaterasu, the sun goddess, is a concept unique to Shintoism. Other mythologies refer to the sun in a masculine sense. Another divergence is that the moon goddess, Tsukiyomi, does not have a large role. Instead, from this point on, the gods are ruled and influenced by Amaterasu and her brother, Susano-o. These two aspects of the primordial forces of nature represent light and dark, respectively. Amaterasu is the peace loving sister who supports creativity and who is constructive. Also, her sphere of power extends beyond the sun, for she is the goddess of fertility and agriculture. As a counter-point, Susano-o is "tempestuous, violent, and destructive" (McCasland 712). Being the god of storms, Susano-o unleashes his powers to destroy his sister's crops and disrupt the harvest rites that she prepares. Amaterasu suggests order and Susano-o hints at chaos. The complex psychology of their relationship goes beyond the superficial elements of nature. A myriad of myths exist to explain the interactions of these two siblings throughout their history. Eventually, they move on to separate ways.

Susano-o had scared his sister into hiding, but she returns to heaven and he is driven out. He retires to Izumo and suppresses his evil soul, named Ara-mi-tama, in favor of his good soul, Nigi-mi-tama. This concept of two souls makes sense when you consider that Susano-o is never a completely evil god. In addition to destructive storms, he is the fertility god who brings the rains needed for crops to grow. While in Izumo, Susano-o encounters an old man who once had eight daughters. Slowly, the daughters are being eaten by an eight headed snake. Kushinada is the only daughter still living when Susano-o hears this tale. In return for killing the eight headed snake, Susano-o wants the remaining daughter as his bride. He intoxicates the snake with eight bowls of sake, then strikes when the snake falls asleep. Using Kusanagi, a sword that is later presented to Amaterasu, Susano-o kills the monster and claims his prize. He builds a castle for his new wife, Kushinada, and himself in Suga. Later, their child, O-Kuni-Nushi, becomes the Lord of Izumo (Bruhl 409).

Meanwhile, Amaterasu decides to send her own son, Ame-no-Oshido-Mimi, to rule the earth. He declines the position, claiming that the earth is too full of disturbances. As a result, the pantheon of gods is called upon to decide what to do to bring order. After much politicking, the kami decide to send envoys to Izumo to inform O-Kuni-Nushi that Amaterasu has sent them to subjugate the land. O-Kuni-Nushi consults with his two sons before responding, gaining instant agreement from the elder. The younger son disagrees with Amaterasu's plan, but agrees not to act against it. When the messengers return to heaven with the news of Izumo's submission, a gladdened Amaterasu decides to send her new grandson, Ninigi, to earth as the imperial ruler. The goddess bestows three gifts upon her grandson: Kusanagi, the sword that Susano-o beheaded the eight headed snake with; the mirror that had lured her from the cave where she had hid from her brother, leading to her return to heaven; and the heavenly jewels. These three gifts eventually became the symbols of imperial power.

Historians theorize that the myths portray the rivalry between the Yamato clan, who worshipped Amaterasu, and the Izumo clan, whose god was Susano-o. Amaterasu gains prestige with the rising power of the Yamato clan. By the first century AD, the chieftain of the Yamato clan claims he is descended from the goddess. When the Yamato clan finally subjugates the Izumo clan, they integrate the myths of Susano-o into the myths of Amaterasu. Interestingly, despite Amaterasu gaining precedence through the efforts of the Yamato clan, the most ancient shrine in Japan is located in Izumo and dedicated to Susano-o's son.

The tales noted above are just a few of the myths that guide people in the application of Shintoism. The complexity of the Kami gives the Japanese people "archetypes to follow and practice" (McCasland 713). The basic elements that comprise everyday human life find their counterparts in the myths. From mundane to major, events such as marriage, death, recreation, farming, and family have all woven their way through the web of the stories. This comprehensive guidance is important, for "To be a Shintoist means to practice "the Way after the manner of the Gods" (kami nagara no michi)" (McCasland 713). However, the tales and myths are not limited to providing guidance to modern followers. They also use communal and folk religions to tell the basis of Japanese culture, and they still protect the imperial house. It is not a stagnant mythology.

This is just a brief glimpse of the foundation of Shintoism. The belief system is influenced and changed by a tidal wave of outside forces. The politics of history lead to changes in the development of the mythology. Other religious influences are incorporated into the superficial, and sometimes fundamental, structure of Shintoism. This integration of mythologies is particularly true of Buddhism and Confucianism, as both concepts appealed strongly to the Japanese people. In fact, a statement attributed to Prince Shootoku (AD 573-621) indicates that "the three major religions of Japan are comparable to the parts of a tree. Shinto is the root, Confucianism the stem and branches, and Buddhism the flowers and fruits" (McCasland 709). This clearly implies that the three religions are inseparable, though Shintoism provides the base of fundamental Japanese beliefs.

Works Cited

Brulh, Odette: The Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, "Japanese Mythology,"
1994 Barnes and Noble Books, pg. 403-422
Hooker, Richard: "The Japanese Religion," http://www.wsu.edu:800/~dee/
GLOSSARY/KAMI.HTM 4/5/98
Hooker, Richard, "Shinto," http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ANCJAPAN/SHINTO.
HTM 4/5/98
McCasland, S. Vernon, Grace E. Cairns, David C. Yui: Religions of the World,
"Shinto," 1969 Random House Inc., pg. 709-730
Noss, John B., David S. Noss: Man's Religion, "Shinto: The Native Contribution
to Japanese Religion," 1984 Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 7th
Edition, pg. 302-331.
"Shinto," http://www.shinto.org/2-1-e.html
"Shinto," http://www.shinto.org/2-2-e.html
Stanley, Thomas A., R.T.A. Irving, "Shinto," http://hkuhist2.hku.hk/nakasendo/
shinto.htm, March 31, 1998

Questions for Rhetorical Analysis
1. Look at the piece of literature that you are analyzing and describe the TONE that is common in this mode of writing. How do you image the writer would be talking if he/she were a speaker? Is the writing formal (like in a textbook or a stuffy speech) or informal (like a chat between friends)? Sometimes a tone might be angry or happy, confused or direct. Jot down a few words that describe the tone of the entries, then quote a few entries that illustrate this tone.

2. Where do the writers of the entries get the INFORMATION they use? Do the writers simply use their own opinions? Do they share personal experiences? Other people's stories? Statistics? Formal research from books? Is the information qualified, justified, or assumed to be taken as fact? Is the information treated skeptically? With reverence? List some of the places they writers got their information, then quote a few sections to illustrate this.

3. Squint and look at how the entries are BROKEN UP. Are they broken into pieces that make them look like stories? Letters? Advertisements? Is there a great deal of dialogue? None at all? Are there sections with diagrams, pictures, and charts? Is there a distinct beginning, middle, and end? How are those marked? Use the text to indicate how you arrived at your beliefs. How is the information broken up? Are there discernable sections? Are there headings? How long are the sentences? The sections? The quotations? The titles? The words? Describe the chunks that the entries are broken into. Count the words, lines, and pages.

4. What is the PURPOSE of the entry? What seems to be the reason for its existence? Is it an argument? Is it trying to move the reader to do or buy something? Is it a celebration? A critique? What does the writer seem to want the audience to think, do, and feel? Hypothesize about the material and ostensible reasons for the entries' existence.

5. WHO is this written for? Is it written for people like you or unlike you? Is the audience sympathetic or hostile, educated or naive? Is the audience like or unlike the author? Does the audience or the author seem to have more power? List the characters of the audience for the entries.

If you have any questions, requests, or comments, e-mail me at the following:
aristotle@aristotle.20m.com
Sample Outline: The Analysis of E-mail Peer Editing as a Component in the Writing Workshop Process

I. Introduction
a. It is accepted and recognized that computers are important in the writing classroom
b. Not all schools have the budget for networked classrooms
c. Need to create an extended network that students can apply to both school and future career fields
d. The possible use of E-mail as extending dialogue and peer-editing

Thesis: This paper will attempt to analyze the employment of e-mail peer editing in the writing workshop classroom. The paper will take the following organization: a) a critical analysis of the current research done in the field of computers and the editing process; b) an overview of the classroom participants; c) the paper procedures and processes used in the writing of this sample essay; d) the results founded pertaining to the types of comments and edits that the students applied when peer-editing over e-mail; and e) a discussion of the results founded pertaining to the responses of the students and the possible utilization of e-mail peer editing in future workshop classes.

II. A Critical Analysis of the Current Research Pertaining to Computers and Peer-Editing
a. Networked classroom
b. Sentence level versus holistic writing analysis—which do students use when editing on computer?
c. I’m sure that there is more stuff in this area….

III. An Overview of the Classroom Participants
a. Fresh-person level of college English
b. Average age of students (18 years)
c. Gender dynamics
d. Intended majors: eclectic

IV. The Procedures and Processes Used in Writing the Sample Essay
a. Point-of-View essay-define
b. Two weeks to complete. Steps of the essay: group presentation on the point-of-view essay, pre-write in class, first draft of support due, pre-write the opposition, workshop for support, rough draft of the opposition due, workshop on the opposition, workshop on both papers that includes the responsible reader heuristic, computer peer editing over the weekend with two group members, possible visits to the writer’s center and teacher. Final draft included all edits, including a print off of the computer peer edit
c. All drafts are done on computer, including the ones used for in-class writing workshops

V. Results of the Computer Peer-Editing Process
a. Positive rhetoric
b. Sentence structure level corrections
c. Organization
d. Alternative word/sentence suggestions
e. Suggestions pertaining to style
f. Suggestions for additions/development and support
g. Full dialogue versus brief lines and abbreviations that are found on handwritten peer-edited papers

VI. Conclusion: A Discussion of the Results and the Possible Employment of E-mail Peer-Editing in Future Classroom Workshops
a. At what point in the workshop process should this be utilized? Towards the end due to the sentence structure editing that dominates the responses
b. How to prep the students to maximize success with this project: create a checklist. Tech reliability, time conflicts, motivated students versus unmotivated students
c. Student preferences and student resistance: how to ease into this section of the process
d. Creates a workshop alternative that groups are able to access after passing the English 101 class

VII. Conclusions
a. Not all schools have networked classrooms, but it is now the norm for all schools to have a computer center
b. Creates an extended community
c. Redirects student comments for another usable facet of the workshop process
d. Prepares students for future employment in which communication by computers is necessary